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If we use the max UK limit of 20mg/ml (which is incredibly popular among users of disposable vapes), this means a 10ml bottle of e-liquid could offer as much deliverable nicotine as 9 packets of cigarettes

To address this issue, the MG-CFA in the first step can be replaced with the multilevel confirmatory factor analysis (ML-CFA) using Bayesian estimation, which is more robust to small sample sizes (for details, see Zhao et al., 2025)

Evaluating effect size in psychological research: Sense and nonsense

Pharmacol Biochem Behav 74 : 495504